Overview

The Wolfsburg Nord Power Plant is a significant hard coal-fired energy facility located in the municipality of Wolfsburg, within the German state of Lower Saxony. As of 2026, the plant remains operational under the management of Vattenfall, one of Europe’s largest electricity producers. With an installed electrical capacity of approximately 1200 MW, Wolfsburg Nord serves as a critical node in the regional power grid, contributing substantially to the baseload and intermediate load requirements of Northern Germany. The facility has been in service since its initial commissioning in 1972, making it a veteran of the German energy transition (*Energiewende*), having survived decades of policy shifts, environmental regulations, and market liberalization that have led to the closure of many older thermal plants.

Location and Infrastructure

Geographically, the plant is situated in the northern part of the city of Wolfsburg, an area historically dominated by industrial activity, most notably the Volkswagen Group’s automotive manufacturing complex. This proximity to a major industrial consumer provided early economic advantages, allowing for efficient transmission of electricity directly to high-demand users while also feeding into the broader 220 kV and 330 kV transmission networks managed by the regional transmission system operator. The site benefits from good logistical access for coal delivery, historically relying on a combination of rail and barge transport via the nearby Mittelland Canal, which connects to the Rhine-Ruhr industrial heartland, the traditional source of German hard coal.

Background: The plant's location in Lower Saxony places it in a region that has historically balanced heavy industry with significant renewable energy growth, particularly wind power. This creates a unique operational dynamic where coal plants like Wolfsburg Nord must frequently adjust output to accommodate the variability of regional wind generation.

Role in the German Energy Landscape

Hard coal continues to play a nuanced role in Germany’s electricity mix, despite aggressive decarbonization targets. While lignite (brown coal) remains the dominant thermal fuel in the East, hard coal plants like Wolfsburg Nord are valued for their relative flexibility compared to their lignite counterparts. The 1200 MW capacity allows the plant to cover significant gaps in supply, particularly during periods of low wind and solar output, often referred to as the *Dunkelflaute* (dark doldrums). Vattenfall has maintained the plant’s operational status through ongoing modernization efforts, which typically include upgrades to flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for deNOx, and activated carbon injection for mercury control to meet the stringent requirements of the German Federal Immission Control Act (*Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz*).

The operational history of Wolfsburg Nord reflects the broader challenges facing the European power sector. Commissioned in 1972, the plant has undergone multiple technological overhauls to extend its economic lifespan. These upgrades have improved thermal efficiency and reduced specific CO₂ emissions per megawatt-hour, although coal remains a carbon-intensive fuel source. As Germany moves toward phasing out coal by 2030, the specific future trajectory of Wolfsburg Nord depends on the interplay between electricity market prices, carbon pricing under the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), and the integration speed of renewable energy and storage solutions in the Lower Saxony grid. The plant’s continued operation underscores the complexity of energy security, where baseload reliability often competes with long-term climate goals.

History and Development

Construction of the Wolfsburg Nord power plant began in the late 1960s, driven by the rapid industrial expansion of Lower Saxony and the strategic needs of the Volkswagen Group. The facility was designed primarily to supply steam and electricity to the adjacent Volkswagen factory, making it one of the few major power stations in Germany built with such a strong industrial symbiosis in mind. The plant officially commenced operations in 1972, entering service during a period when hard coal remained the dominant fuel source for baseload power generation in the region. Initial designs focused on efficiency and reliability, utilizing advanced combustion technology for the era to minimize downtime for the car manufacturer.

Early Operations and Fuel Strategy

In its first decade, Wolfsburg Nord operated as a standard hard coal-fired station. The choice of hard coal over lignite was influenced by the plant's location in the North German Plain, where lignite deposits were less accessible compared to the Rhineland. The plant's configuration allowed for flexible output, crucial for matching the production cycles of the Volkswagen assembly lines. During the 1970s, the station underwent minor retrofits to improve boiler efficiency and integrate with the local grid infrastructure. The operational model emphasized direct steam supply, with electricity generation often treated as a byproduct, a setup that would later influence its economic valuation.

Background: The plant's proximity to the Volkswagen factory meant that power outages at Wolfsburg Nord could halt car production within hours, creating a unique pressure for reliability compared to typical utility-scale plants.

Ownership Transitions and Modernization

Over the decades, the ownership structure of Wolfsburg Nord evolved significantly. Originally part of the broader Vattenfall portfolio, the plant has seen various corporate restructurings common to the European energy sector. As of 2026, Vattenfall remains the primary operator, having integrated the facility into its broader hard coal assets in Germany. Major upgrades have been implemented to meet tightening environmental regulations, particularly regarding sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. These modernization efforts included the installation of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) units, which were critical for maintaining operational licenses in the increasingly competitive German energy market.

The plant's capacity has been maintained at approximately 1200 MW, reflecting a balance between retaining sufficient output for industrial demand and avoiding overcapacity in a grid increasingly populated by renewable sources. Unlike some older coal plants that faced early retirement due to the *Energiewende* (energy transition), Wolfsburg Nord has remained operational due to its strategic value to the local industrial base. The integration of the plant into the regional grid has also allowed it to serve as a flexible resource, capable of ramping up output during peak demand periods or when wind and solar generation dips. This dual role as both an industrial cogeneration plant and a grid stabilizer has been central to its continued viability in the modern energy landscape.

Technical Specifications and Design

The Wolfsburg Nord Powerplant operates as a conventional coal-fired facility, relying on hard coal to generate approximately 1200 MW of electrical capacity. Commissioned in 1972, the plant reflects the engineering standards of early 1970s German thermal power generation. The design prioritizes reliability and steady baseload output, characteristic of units built before the widespread adoption of combined-cycle gas turbines and ultra-supercritical steam parameters. As of 2026, the plant remains operational under the ownership of Vattenfall, having undergone several modernization phases to meet evolving environmental regulations in Lower Saxony.

Boiler and Turbine Configuration

The plant utilizes pulverized coal boilers, a standard technology for hard coal combustion. Coal is ground into a fine powder and blown into the furnace, where it burns rapidly to heat water into high-pressure steam. The specific boiler design likely features natural or forced circulation, typical for units of this era and capacity. Steam parameters are consistent with subcritical or early supercritical designs, operating at pressures and temperatures that balance efficiency with material durability. The turbine configuration typically involves high-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and low-pressure cylinders, driving a single or dual-generator setup depending on the specific unit layout. The net capacity of 1200 MW accounts for auxiliary power consumption, including feedwater pumps, induced draft fans, and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems.

Background: Plants commissioned in the early 1970s in Germany were often designed for lignite or hard coal depending on regional availability. Wolfsburg Nord specifically utilizes hard coal, which has a higher energy density than lignite, allowing for a more compact plant footprint relative to its output.

Efficiency metrics for the Wolfsburg Nord plant are representative of its age. Older coal-fired plants typically achieve net electrical efficiencies between 35% and 40%, meaning that 35–40% of the thermal energy in the coal is converted into electricity, with the remainder lost as heat in the condenser and flue gases. Modernization efforts, such as the installation of advanced deNOx systems and mercury controls, may have slightly impacted efficiency due to increased auxiliary power demand, but they significantly reduced specific emissions per megawatt-hour.

Key Technical Data

Parameter Value
Primary Fuel Hard Coal
Net Electrical Capacity 1200 MW
Commissioning Year 1972
Operator Vattenfall
Boiler Type Pulverized Coal (Subcritical/Supercritical)
Estimated Net Efficiency 35–40%
Operational Status Operational (as of 2026)

The plant's design includes essential auxiliary systems to maintain operational flexibility. These include coal handling and storage facilities, water treatment plants for feedwater purity, and emissions control systems. The flue gas desulfurization system removes sulfur dioxide, while selective catalytic reduction (SCR) or selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) systems target nitrogen oxides. These upgrades are critical for compliance with the German Federal Immission Control Act (Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz), which sets strict limits on particulate matter, SO₂, and NOₓ emissions for thermal power plants. The integration of these systems ensures that the plant can continue to contribute to the regional grid while managing its environmental footprint.

How does the Wolfsburg Nord Power Plant operate?

The Wolfsburg Nord Power Plant operates as a conventional thermal power station, converting the chemical energy of coal into electrical energy through a Rankine cycle. As of 2026, the facility remains operational under the management of Vattenfall, contributing approximately 1200 MW of capacity to the regional grid. The operational workflow begins with fuel logistics. Coal is transported to the site, typically via rail or barge, and stored in large bunkers to ensure a steady feed rate. This storage buffer is critical for maintaining baseload stability, allowing the plant to adjust output without immediate reliance on external supply chains.

Fuel Handling and Combustion

Once delivered, the coal undergoes preparation to optimize combustion efficiency. It is crushed and ground into a fine powder in mills located within the boiler house. This pulverization increases the surface area of the fuel, allowing for rapid and complete burning. The powdered coal is then injected into the furnace burners. Inside the furnace, the coal burns at high temperatures, releasing significant thermal energy. The combustion process is carefully controlled to manage emissions. Modern coal plants like Wolfsburg Nord typically employ flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems to remove sulfur dioxide, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for nitrogen oxides, and electrostatic precipitators or bag filters for particulate matter. These systems are essential for meeting stringent German environmental standards, particularly regarding sulfur and mercury emissions.

Background: The plant was commissioned in 1972, a period when coal was the dominant source of industrial power in Lower Saxony. Its long operational history reflects the gradual modernization of German coal infrastructure, with significant upgrades to emission controls and turbine efficiency over the decades.

Steam Generation and Turbine Drive

The heat generated from combustion is transferred to water circulating through thousands of tubes lining the furnace walls. This water turns into high-pressure steam. The steam expands through a series of turbines, causing the turbine blades to rotate. This mechanical rotation is the core of electricity generation. The turbines are connected to generators, where the mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy via electromagnetic induction. The steam passes through high-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and low-pressure turbine stages to maximize energy extraction. After passing through the turbines, the steam is condensed back into water in a condenser, often cooled by water from the nearby Aller river or cooling towers, and then pumped back into the boiler to repeat the cycle.

The operational flexibility of Wolfsburg Nord is a key feature. While traditionally a baseload plant, it has adapted to the fluctuating nature of renewable energy integration in the German grid. This requires the plant to ramp up and down more frequently than in the early 1970s. Vattenfall manages this by adjusting the coal feed rate and steam pressure, allowing the plant to respond to grid frequency changes. This adaptability is crucial for balancing the intermittency of wind and solar power in the region. The plant’s location in Wolfsburg also allows for potential heat recovery, although its primary output remains electricity. The operational workflow is monitored continuously by control systems that adjust parameters in real-time to optimize efficiency and minimize wear on mechanical components. This continuous optimization ensures that the plant can maintain its 1200 MW output while managing the complex interplay of fuel quality, steam pressure, and grid demand.

Environmental Impact and Emissions

As a major thermal power station in Lower Saxony, the Wolfsburg Nord Powerplant contributes significantly to the regional energy mix, but its reliance on coal combustion entails a distinct environmental footprint. The plant's operational status as of 2026 means it continues to emit greenhouse gases and air pollutants, making it a focal point for environmental monitoring in Germany. The primary concern is carbon dioxide (CO₂) output, which is directly proportional to the net capacity of 1200 MW and the specific coal quality burned. Typical hard coal-fired plants emit between 0.3 and 0.4 tonnes of CO₂ per MWh of electricity generated. For a facility of this size, annual CO₂ emissions can range from 2 to 3 million tonnes, depending on the actual load factor and the carbon intensity of the fuel. This places Wolfsburg Nord among the notable point sources of carbon in the North German grid, contributing to the broader challenge of decarbonizing the power sector ahead of the national phase-out targets.

Air Quality and Pollutant Control

Beyond carbon, the combustion of coal releases sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and particulate matter (PM), which affect local air quality and human health. To manage these emissions, the plant employs advanced flue gas cleaning technologies. Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) systems are critical for removing SO₂. These wet scrubbers typically use a limestone slurry to react with sulfur compounds, converting them into gypsum, a by-product that can be used in construction. This process can achieve SO₂ removal efficiencies exceeding 90%, significantly reducing the acid rain potential of the plant's exhaust.

Background: The transition from simple electrostatic precipitators to hybrid filtration systems has been a common upgrade path for German coal plants, aiming to catch finer particles that traditional methods miss.

Nitrogen oxide emissions are controlled through Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR). In this process, ammonia or urea is injected into the flue gas stream, reacting with NOₓ over a catalyst bed to form nitrogen and water vapor. SCR systems are particularly effective at lower temperatures and can reduce NOₓ concentrations by up to 80%, helping the plant comply with the strict limits set by the German Federal Immission Control Act (Bundes-Immissionschutzgesetz). Particulate matter is managed using electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters, which capture ash and fly ash before the gas exits the stack. Modern upgrades often target fine particulates (PM2.5) and ultrafine particles, which have a higher penetration depth into human lungs.

The plant's environmental performance is also influenced by the type of coal used. Hard coal generally has a higher energy density and lower sulfur content compared to lignite, but it still requires rigorous cleaning. Vattenfall, the operator, has historically invested in retrofitting older units to meet evolving European Union directives on industrial emissions. These directives set benchmark values for best available techniques (BAT), pushing plants to optimize their scrubbing and filtration efficiency. The continuous monitoring of emissions data ensures transparency, with real-time data often fed into national registries.

Water usage is another critical aspect of the environmental impact. Coal-fired power plants require significant amounts of water for cooling and boiler feed. The Wolfsburg Nord facility likely utilizes a combination of evaporative cooling towers and once-through cooling, depending on the proximity to the Aller river or local groundwater sources. Thermal pollution, where heated water is discharged back into the water body, can affect local aquatic ecosystems. To mitigate this, cooling towers allow a portion of the water to evaporate, reducing the thermal load on the receiving water body. However, this also leads to higher water consumption rates compared to dry cooling systems.

As the German energy transition, or *Energiewende*, progresses, the environmental scrutiny on coal plants like Wolfsburg Nord intensifies. The plant faces pressure to reduce its carbon intensity, potentially through co-firing with biomass or the integration of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies. While CCUS remains largely in the pilot or early commercial stages for existing coal plants, it represents a potential pathway to extend the operational life of such facilities with a lower carbon footprint. The balance between energy security, cost-efficiency, and environmental sustainability continues to define the operational strategy for Vattenfall's coal assets in Germany.

What is the role of Wolfsburg Nord in the German Energy Transition?

The Wolfsburg Nord power plant occupies a complex position within Germany’s *Energiewende* (energy transition). As a 1,200 MW hard coal facility commissioned in 1972, it represents the legacy thermal generation that the German grid is actively working to phase out. However, its continued operation as of 2026 highlights the tension between political targets and grid stability. The plant provides essential baseload power, a role that becomes increasingly critical when wind and solar output fluctuates. This reliability is not merely historical; it is a functional necessity for balancing the intermittency of renewable sources in Lower Saxony and the broader North German grid.

Baseload and Grid Stability

Coal plants like Wolfsburg Nord are often criticized for their carbon intensity, yet they offer dispatchable power. Unlike wind or solar, which depend on meteorological conditions, coal generation can be ramped up or down to match demand. This flexibility is vital for integrating high shares of variable renewable energy. The plant’s 1,200 MW capacity contributes significantly to the regional supply, helping to stabilize frequency and voltage. In years with lower wind output, such as the "wind droughts" experienced in recent winters, thermal plants prevent the need for expensive imports from neighboring countries.

Flexibility and Future Scenarios

The *Energiewende* requires thermal plants to become more flexible. Wolfsburg Nord has likely undergone upgrades to enhance its ramping capabilities, allowing it to adjust output more quickly than older units. This flexibility supports the integration of renewables by filling gaps during peak demand or low renewable generation. However, the plant’s future is subject to policy shifts. The German government’s coal phase-out plan targets the closure of hard coal plants by 2030, though this timeline can be adjusted based on gas prices and grid needs.

Caveat: The economic viability of Wolfsburg Nord depends heavily on the Carbon Price in the European Emissions Trading System (ETS). High carbon costs can make coal less competitive against gas and renewables, accelerating the phase-out.

Potential future scenarios include co-firing biomass or converting the plant to gas. Co-firing involves burning a mix of coal and biomass, which can reduce the carbon intensity of the output. Conversion to gas offers greater flexibility and lower emissions, but requires significant investment. These options are being evaluated by operator Vattenfall, but no definitive decision has been made. The plant’s fate will likely be determined by a combination of market signals, policy decisions, and technological advancements.

Policy and Market Dynamics

The German energy market is evolving rapidly. The introduction of capacity mechanisms and the expansion of interconnectors are changing the value proposition of thermal plants. Wolfsburg Nord must compete with newer, more efficient gas plants and an increasing share of storage solutions. The plant’s location in Lower Saxony, a region with significant renewable generation, also influences its role. It serves as a backup for local wind and solar farms, reducing transmission losses and enhancing regional security.

Critics argue that keeping coal plants online delays the transition to cleaner energy sources. They point to the health impacts of coal combustion and the opportunity cost of investing in thermal capacity rather than renewables or storage. Proponents, however, emphasize the need for a just transition, ensuring that grid stability is maintained while renewable capacity scales up. This debate reflects the broader challenges of the *Energiewende*, where technical, economic, and social factors intersect.

The Wolfsburg Nord power plant is a microcosm of Germany’s energy transition. It embodies the trade-offs between reliability and sustainability, legacy infrastructure and future innovation. As the grid evolves, the role of such plants will continue to shift, reflecting the dynamic nature of the energy sector. The plant’s future will be shaped by ongoing policy debates, market conditions, and technological progress, making it a key case study in the global transition to low-carbon energy.

Comparison with Other German Coal Plants

Positioning Wolfsburg Nord within the broader landscape of German coal-fired generation requires examining its specific role as a mid-sized, aging facility compared to Germany’s largest and most modern units. At 1200 MW, the plant is significantly smaller than the giants like Schkopau II or Moorburg, which often exceed 2000 MW in net capacity. This size difference dictates its operational flexibility and economic resilience in a market increasingly dominated by scale and efficiency.

Capacity and Scale Differences

Wolfsburg Nord’s 1200 MW capacity places it in the middle tier of German hard coal plants. In contrast, Vattenfall’s Schkopau II plant in Saxony-Anhalt boasts a net capacity of approximately 2300 MW, making it one of the largest single-site coal facilities in the country. Similarly, E.ON’s Moorburg plant in Hamburg, commissioned in 2012, has a net capacity of around 2100 MW. The disparity in scale means that larger plants benefit from lower fixed costs per megawatt-hour, giving them a competitive edge during periods of moderate electricity demand. Wolfsburg Nord, while substantial, lacks the sheer output volume to dominate regional grid stability in the same way.

Plant Name Location Operator Net Capacity (MW) Year Commissioned Primary Fuel
Wolfsburg Nord Lower Saxony Vattenfall 1200 1972 Hard Coal
Schkopau II Saxony-Anhalt Vattenfall 2300 1972–1982 Hard Coal
Moorburg Hamburg E.ON 2100 2012 Hard Coal

Efficiency and Technological Age

Efficiency is a critical differentiator. Wolfsburg Nord, commissioned in 1972, utilizes subcritical or early supercritical steam turbine technology typical of its era. Its net thermal efficiency is estimated to be around 35–38%, meaning a significant portion of the coal’s energy is lost as heat. This stands in stark contrast to Moorburg, which employs advanced supercritical technology with a net efficiency exceeding 45%. Higher efficiency translates directly to lower fuel consumption and reduced CO₂ emissions per megawatt-hour, a crucial factor under the European Union’s Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). Schkopau II, while also commissioned in the 1970s, has undergone several modernization cycles, improving its efficiency to approximately 40–42%, but it still lags behind the newest builds like Moorburg.

Caveat: Efficiency figures can vary based on operating conditions, such as part-load performance and ambient temperature. The values cited represent typical net thermal efficiency under standard operating conditions.

The age of Wolfsburg Nord also impacts its maintenance requirements and operational flexibility. Older plants often face higher capital expenditure for upgrades to meet evolving environmental standards, such as flue gas desulfurization (FGD) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for NOx control. While Vattenfall has invested in keeping Wolfsburg Nord operational, the plant’s technological vintage places it at a disadvantage compared to newer facilities designed with integrated environmental controls and more flexible turbine systems. This technological gap influences decisions regarding the plant’s future, particularly as Germany progresses toward its coal phase-out targets.

Operational Role and Market Position

In the German power mix, Wolfsburg Nord serves as a reliable baseload or intermediate load provider, particularly in the Lower Saxony region. Its operational status as of 2026 reflects a strategic choice by Vattenfall to maintain a diversified generation portfolio. However, the plant’s higher specific emissions and lower efficiency mean it is often dispatched after more efficient units like Moorburg or large hydroelectric plants. This positioning makes Wolfsburg Nord more vulnerable to market fluctuations, especially when renewable energy output is high, pushing coal plants with higher marginal costs to the margin. The comparison underscores the challenges faced by older, mid-sized coal plants in a market increasingly shaped by efficiency and carbon pricing.

Future Outlook and Challenges

As of 2026, the Wolfsburg Nord power plant faces a complex operational landscape defined by the tension between its role as a flexible baseload provider and the accelerating pace of Germany's *Energiewende* (energy transition). With a net capacity of 1,200 MW, the facility remains a significant asset for Vattenfall in the Lower Saxony grid, particularly for balancing the intermittency of wind and solar generation. However, its long-term viability is increasingly contingent on economic signals from the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and the evolving structure of the German electricity market.

Carbon Pricing and Economic Pressure

The primary challenge for coal-fired generation in Germany is the rising cost of carbon allowances. Under the EU ETS, the price per tonne of CO₂ has fluctuated significantly, often exceeding €80–€90 in recent years. For a plant like Wolfsburg Nord, which typically emits between 0.6 and 0.7 tonnes of CO₂ per MWh depending on the coal blend and efficiency, this translates to a substantial variable cost. As of 2026, high carbon prices compress the operating margin for coal plants, making them less competitive against combined-cycle gas turbines (CCGTs) and increasingly cheap renewables. Vattenfall must therefore optimize the plant’s utilization hours, often dispatching Wolfsburg Nord during peak demand periods when the "merit order" pushes coal ahead of gas, or during winter months when wind output dips.

Caveat: The economic survival of individual coal plants is not solely determined by carbon prices but also by the capacity mechanism and wholesale electricity prices, which can be volatile and influenced by broader geopolitical factors.

Renewable Integration and Flexibility

The growth of renewable energy sources in the German grid has shifted the demand profile for thermal power plants. Wolfsburg Nord is increasingly valued for its flexibility rather than just its baseload output. The plant has undergone various modernization efforts to enhance its start-up times and load-following capabilities, allowing it to ramp up quickly when wind and solar generation falls short. This flexibility is crucial for grid stability, especially in the north of Germany, which is a major hub for wind energy. However, frequent cycling—starting up and shutting down—can increase wear and tear on equipment, potentially shortening the technical lifespan of the units if not managed carefully.

Decommissioning Timelines and Policy Context

Germany’s national coal phase-out law (*Kohleausstiegsgesetz*) sets a target to eliminate coal-fired power generation by 2038, with the possibility of an earlier exit in 2030 if the grid remains stable. This legislative framework provides a clear, albeit distant, horizon for Wolfsburg Nord. Vattenfall has indicated that the plant will likely remain operational for the remainder of the statutory period, contributing to the residual load coverage. The exact decommissioning date will depend on the annual assessments of the German Federal Network Agency (*Bundesnetzagentur*) and the European Commission regarding grid stability and climate targets. If the 2030 early exit becomes feasible, plants with higher emissions intensity or lower flexibility may be the first to close, though Wolfsburg Nord’s strategic location and capacity may afford it some resilience.

Ultimately, the future of Wolfsburg Nord is not just a technical question but a policy-driven one. The plant’s operators are likely to continue investing in marginal efficiency improvements and digitalization to extend its economic life, while preparing for the eventual transition to a post-coal era. The social and economic impact on the local region, including job retention and potential repurposing of the site for hydrogen or battery storage, will also play a role in the final decisions. As the energy mix shifts, the plant’s role will evolve from a primary power source to a strategic reserve asset, highlighting the complex interplay between infrastructure longevity and climate goals.

See also